BMC Plant Biology

Cassava produces starch-filled tubers which are a crucial food source for many people, especially in Africa. This plant species is famous for drought tolerance and resilience, but changing conditions due to climate change require genetic improvements to ensure sustainable cassava cultivation. In this context, a comprehensive understanding of the genetic basis responsible for a variety of traits is beneficial. Here, we present insights into the anthocyanin metabolism, responsible for coloration and protection of cassava structures during stress. Intraspecific variation in the transcriptional control of the anthocyanin biosynthesis was characterized through comparative genomics and phylogenetic analyses. A member of the R2R3-MYB transcription factor family, orthologous to crucial activators of anthocyanin biosynthesis in other plant species, was identified as a genetic hotspot for pigment accumulation capacity between cultivars. Orthologs of this gene appeared absent from three cassava cultivars without pronounced anthocyanin pigmentation, while being present in cultivars known for anthocyanin formation. This discovery corroborates previous reports about the importance of transcriptional regulators in the intraspecific diversity of anthocyanin pigmentation.

Barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV), transmitted by the bird cherry-oat aphid (Rhopalosiphum padi L.), is among the most damaging viral diseases of barley, but the mechanisms underlying resistance to both the virus and its vector remain poorly understood. Here, we investigated resistance associated with the Hordeum bulbosum-derived Ryd4 introgression in the barley hybrid SY Kestrel by integrating behavioural, electrophysiological, physiological and multi-omics analyses with functional validation of defence metabolites. SY Kestrel exhibited constitutive volatile-mediated antixenosis together with strong post-settlement antibiosis characterised by impaired phloem feeding, reduced aphid fitness and suppression of BYDV gene expression 10 days after transmission. Integrated transcriptomic, metabolomic and small RNA analyses revealed coordinated immune activation, chloroplast remodelling and defence metabolism associated with the resistance introgression. Candidate immune regulators were identified both within the refined Ryd4 interval and the surrounding introgressed region. Maintenance of photosystem II function was accompanied by reprogramming of -linolenic acid-derived oxylipin metabolism, while phenylpropanoid and branched-chain amino acid/lysine pathways generated metabolites that directly reduced aphid survival. We demonstrate that the Ryd4 introgression coordinates constitutive vector deterrence with host defence reprogramming to restrict aphid colonisation and suppress BYDV establishment. These results provide a mechanistic framework for improving durable resistance to aphid-transmitted viruses in cereals.

Modern crop breeding has increased yield under monoculture stands, but the mechanisms underlying this improvement remain incompletely understood. We tested whether genotype-dependent reduction of competition, whereby plants adjust competitive responses according to neighbor genetic identity, contributes to yield maintenance in modern common wheat cultivars. We conducted a root-exudate application experiment and two competition experiments using three common wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) landraces and one modern cultivar, Norin 61. Norin 61 exhibited little change in shoot-to-root allocation in response to root exudates from the same cultivar compared with distilled water, whereas it increased shoot-to-root allocation exposed to root exudate from different cultivars. Moreover, shoot-to-root allocation increased with decreasing genetic relatedness between neighboring cultivars in common wheat plants. In competition experiments, greater shoot-to-root allocation was associated with stronger suppression of competitors. Norin 61 maintained grain biomass under the same-cultivar competition compared to solitary conditions but exhibited substantial yield reductions when competing with different cultivars, whereas these patterns were weaker or absent in landraces. These results suggest that genotype-dependent reduction of competition may contribute to yield maintenance in modern wheat cultivars and provide a new perspective on how crop breeding has shaped plant-plant interactions in monoculture stands.

Petal coloration is a key ornamental trait in Cyclamen persicum Mill. and is closely associated with anthocyanin composition and relative accumulation, yet the major anthocyanins and candidate molecular factors associated with color variation remain unclear. In this study, anthocyanin profiling and transcriptome analysis were integrated to investigate three Cyclamen materials with distinct petal colors, BXK, FXK, and SHXK. Anthocyanin profiling showed clear separation among the three materials, indicating that petal color divergence was associated with differences in anthocyanin composition and relative abundance. Petunidin-, peonidin-, delphinidin-, malvidin-, and cyanidin-related derivatives exhibited distinct accumulation patterns. Transcriptome analysis revealed marked transcriptional divergence, with phenylpropanoid and flavonoid biosynthesis repeatedly enriched across comparisons, whereas isoflavonoid and flavone and flavonol biosynthesis were enriched in selected comparisons. Mapping differentially expressed genes onto the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway revealed branch-specific expression patterns of structural genes, including CHS, F3H/F3'H, F3'5'H, DFR, and ANS. Notably, Cluster-26256.0, annotated as a putative anthocyanidin synthase gene, showed a progressive increase in expression from BXK to FXK and SHXK, consistent with increasing petal pigmentation. Several DFR-related transcripts also showed relatively high expression in SHXK. Co-expression analysis linked key anthocyanins, structural genes, and transcription factors, while qRT-PCR generally confirmed RNA-seq trends. These results suggest that late anthocyanin biosynthesis, particularly ANS-related transcriptional variation, may contribute to dark red petal coloration. This study provides a metabolite-transcript framework for Cyclamen petal coloration and identifies ANS-related genes as priority candidates for future functional studies and flower-color breeding.

During maturation, flowers exhibit complex and finely-coordinated metabolic events facilitating various physiological changes that occur in a short time-span. The floral carbon metabolism underpins a metabolic frame, which provides energy and metabolites to drive the life-processes in flowers. However, studies on floral maturation in the past mostly focused on specialized metabolism or certain metabolite classes of central carbon metabolism. This study aims to provide a detailed insight into the dynamics of floral carbon metabolism and its role in flower maturation; it also addresses a long-standing question on the role of petal photosynthesis in floral maturation. In this report, time-course metabolomic studies were integrated with various physiological, enzymological, histochemical and ultrastructural findings to present a multi-layered investigation on the maturation physiology of Gardenia carinata flowers. This integrated approach revealed the characteristic metabolic features of different floral maturation stages, and also highlighted the metabolic rearrangements that allow each stage to establish their characteristic metabolic state. The photosynthetic bud stages showed metabolism inclined toward active growth and carbon reserve accumulation. A shift to energy-rich metabolism was observed as the flowers unfurled, probably to support energy-demanding events such as flower opening and changes in specialized metabolism. Our study further demonstrates the mechanisms underlining the transition from autotrophic to heterotrophic metabolism during maturation, which also reflects the plasticity in source-sink dynamics of flowers. We envisage that this study could provide a springboard for elucidating the roles of individual metabolites and enzymes in regulating floral maturation.

COBRA-like (COBL) genes encode plant-specific proteins associated with cell-wall organization, cellulose deposition, and developmental processes. Despite their functional relevance in model plants and crops, this gene family remains poorly characterized in Amazonian Malvaceae species. Here, we performed a comparative genomic analysis of COBL genes in two Theobroma grandiflorum clones, two T. cacao cultivars, and Herrania umbratica. Using homology searches, conserved domain validation, phylogenetic reconstruction, gene structure analysis, chromosomal mapping, transcript abundance profiling, molecular modeling, and selection tests, we identified 62 COBL genes across the analyzed genomes. COBL copy number varied among genomes, with T. cacao Matina showing the largest repertoire. All retained proteins contained the conserved COBRA domain and grouped into the two major COBL subgroups previously described in angiosperms, with subgroup-specific exon-intron organization largely conserved across species. Genomic distribution and duplication classification indicated contributions from tandem, segmental, dispersed, and proximal duplications, suggesting that multiple genomic processes shaped COBL family organization in Theobroma and Herrania. Phylogenetic analyses further recovered a putative lineage-specific COBL clade within the analyzed Malvaceae, indicating lineage-specific variation in this gene family. Structural modeling indicated overall conservation between representative proteins from this clade and COBL6-associated proteins, although localized amino acid differences were observed within the COBRA domain. Selection analyses supported predominant purifying selection across the family, with limited evidence of episodic diversifying selection in specific lineages and no significant branch-level signal within the putative lineage-specific clade after correction. Overall, these results provide a comparative framework for COBL gene evolution in Theobroma and Herrania and identify candidate genes for future functional studies on cell-wall-related traits in economically important Malvaceae crops.

Heavy-metal accumulation in cereal grains is becoming critical for European food safety, regulation and plant breeding. In the EU, Cd maximum levels in certain foodstuffs have been revised, including lowering or establishing limits for relevant food categories, while new maximum levels for nickel (Ni) have recently been introduced for several foodstuffs, including cereal categories, with limits for oats and selected cereals applying from 2026. Together, these developments create an urgent need to identify genetic and physiological mechanisms that reduce Cd and Ni accumulation in cereal grains while maintaining crop quality and productivity. Against this regulatory and food-safety background, our broader RNA-seq experiment investigates early transcriptional responses to Cd and Ni in oat F2 segregants contrasting for metal accumulation. The full dataset includes low- and high-accumulating segregants, roots and developing caryopses sampled at 3 h and 7 h after treatment. In the present pilot analysis, we focus on the Cd response in developing caryopses of the low-Cd accumulating segregant AS131 to identify candidate processes associated with reduced grain Cd accumulation. The strongest transcriptional responses were not dominated by canonical Cd-detoxification pathways. At 3 h after Cd exposure, differentially expressed transcripts were mainly associated with cell-wall functions, endosperm transfer-cell-specific PR60 proteins, DUF239-containing proteins and cysteine proteinase inhibitors, whereas several dehydration-, pathogen-, defence-, cell-wall-loosening- and ROS- related genes were repressed. By 7 h, the response suggested a shift towards homeostatic acclimation, with induction of TIP2 aquaporins, thiamine thiazole synthases, EF-Tu proteins, coatomer-related genes and carbohydrate metabolism-associated genes, together with repression of LEA/SMP/dehydrin genes, FRO7-like genes, EF-hand calcium-binding proteins and stress-regulatory transcription factors. Pathway-level analyses were broadly consistent with these transcript-level patterns, highlighting structural, nucleosome-associated, translation-related, metabolic and developmental processes. Several Cd-responsive transcripts were also associated with broader abiotic-stress responses, suggesting recruitment of shared stress-regulatory modules rather than Cd-specific detoxification pathways alone. Overall, these results support a working hypothesis in which low Cd accumulation in developing oat grain may involve regulation of solute-transfer interfaces, cellular protection, intracellular homeostasis, trafficking pathways and caryopsis developmental programmes. These findings provide candidate processes for future comparison with high-Cd accumulating segregants, root tissues and Ni responses in the broader dataset.

Photosynthesis is acknowledged as a potential target to increase crop yield. Improved photosynthesis may be achieved by conventional breeding, exploiting the available natural genetic variation for photosynthesis traits. This approach is challenging for crops due to limitations in high-throughput photosynthesis phenotyping, the highly polygenic nature of photosynthesis, and its strongly dynamic response to environmental changes. Recent advancements in phenomics make accurate and detailed photosynthesis phenotyping more feasible, with the model species Arabidopsis thaliana paving the way for applications in crops. In this study, we examined photosynthesis parameters over time in the global Arabidopsis HapMap diversity panel exposed to three conditions: optimal nutrient supply, low phosphorus supply and low nitrogen supply. Combined with two previous studies on photosynthesis in response to low temperature, and to a one-step change in irradiance from low light to high light, five high-quality datasets were systematically analysed using the same approach (with one million-maker set, uni- and multi-variate analyses). Our findings emphasize the genetic complexity of photosynthesis, detecting hundreds of significant quantitative trait loci, only a small number of which are robust, and of which most are condition specific. Robust loci, found in multiple conditions, exemplify those suited for conferring higher all-round photosynthesis, and targets for marker-assisted selection, contributing to environmental resilience, while the multitude of small-effect conditional loci suggest that genomic selection approaches may be more suited to improve crop photosynthesis.

Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a major staple crop across tropical and subtropical regions. Despite advances in genomic selection, delayed, non-flowering, and asynchronous flowering remain key bottlenecks in breeding programs. To better understand the molecular basis of flowering-time variation, we performed RNA sequencing across three genotypes with contrasting flowering phenotypes (early, late, and non-flowering) sampled at three developmental stages under contrasting light regimes in field conditions (natural light and three-hour night-break with white light). Comparative transcriptomic analysis revealed distinct gene expression patterns associated with flowering responses. Genotype comparisons with no light supplementation revealed stage-specific enrichment of biological processes. Light supplementation was associated with changes in the expression of key components of photoperiodic and circadian regulation, as well as pathways involved in flowering-time integration and hormone and sugar-related signaling. These findings suggest that coordinated changes across multiple biological pathways regulate flowering behavior in cassava. The candidate genes and expression patterns reported provide a foundation for functional studies and advance our understanding of molecular mechanisms governing flowering-time regulation in cassava.

Bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata) exhibits substantial variation in its response to salt stress, making it a valuable model for studying salinity-tolerance mechanisms for use in crop improvement. In this study, we identified two P. spicata genotypes with contrasting responses to salt stress: the tolerant W6 56551, which maintained growth with green foliage under saline conditions, and the susceptible PI693916, which exhibited severe leaf chlorosis and stunted growth. To better understand the molecular basis of salt tolerance in blue-bunch wheatgrass, we conducted RNA-sequencing at 0, 1, and 4 days (D0, D1, and D4) after salt treatment at 160 mM level to examine changes in gene expression of salt-tolerant and salt-susceptible genotypes. Comparative analysis across time points identified 6,154 and 1,086 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) at D4 and D1 in PI693916, and 4,638 and 3,302 DEGs at D4 and D1 in W6 56551, respectively, relative to control (D0). Functional analysis of these DEGs showed that the salt-tolerant geno-type displayed an early and broad transcriptional reprogramming, including induction of photosynthesis, carbon metabolism, and flavonoid biosynthesis pathways, whereas the salt-susceptible genotype exhibited delayed and less coordinated responses, with enrichment of cyanoamino acid metabolism and repression of antioxidant-associated pathways. Notably, calcium signaling, ion transporter regulation, and osmolyte biosynthesis genes showed contrasting expression between genotypes, highlighting distinct strategies for ionic and osmotic homeostasis. Collectively, these results demonstrate that salt tolerance in P. spicata is associated with rapid metabolic adjustment, enhanced photosynthetic stability, and differential regulation of ion transport and osmoprotectant pathways.

Polyploidization can profoundly affect plant metabolite biosynthesis, yet its influence on chemodiversity remains poorly understood, despite the central role of chemodiversity in mediating plant interactions with the environment. The coexistence of facultative apomictic and sexual reproductive systems across ploidy levels in Hypericum provides an excellent model for investigating the evolution of chemodiversity following polyploidization. We analyzed ploidy levels and leaf metabolic fingerprints across selected populations of three Hypericum taxa, H. maculatum, H. perforatum subsp. perforatum and H. perforatum subsp. veronense. Polyploidization was common across all three taxa. Leaf metabolic fingerprints were more pronouncedly differentiated by the ploidy level of the mother plant (F0) than that of the offspring (F1). Although unique metabolic features emerged in plants of most ploidy levels, diploid plants exhibited fewer metabolic features than polyploid plants. Higher Shannon diversity, functional Hill diversity, and intensities of features belonging to specific chemical families were associated with higher F0 ploidy levels in H. perforatum subsp. perforatum, but not in H. maculatum and H. perforatum subsp. veronense. Our findings demonstrate that polyploidization can lead to rapid shifts in chemodiversity across generations in Hypericum. The fast divergence in chemodiversity associated with polyploidization in H. perforatum may contribute to its remarkable invasive potential.

Heat stress is one of the most damaging abiotic constraints on crop productivity, and its consequences are expected to intensify as extreme temperature events become more frequent and severe. Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) is particularly vulnerable to sustained high temperatures, which can disrupt photosynthetic performance, cellular homeostasis, and redox regulation. However, the physiological and transcriptional dynamics underlying genotype-dependent responses to prolonged heat exposure remain insufficiently understood. We combined repeated physiological measurements with time-course RNA sequencing to compare GPC003240, previously identified as a candidate heat-tolerant accession, with two non-elite accessions, GPC010350 and GPC014930, which are phenotypically divergent from each other, under 40/30 {degrees}C Day/night temperatures for up to six days. GPC010350 maintained comparatively stable photosystem II performance and higher stomatal conductance, whereas GPC014930 showed progressive photochemical impairment and lower conductance; GPC003240 displayed a distinct, moderately responsive profile. Transcriptomic responses showed partial functional convergence during the early phase of stress exposure but diverged markedly after six days. When gene expression at day 6 was compared with the pre-treatment baseline separately within each genotype, 4,436 differentially expressed genes were detected in GPC010350, compared with 680 in GPC003240 and only 78 in GPC014930. The late response of GPC010350 was associated with enrichment of RNA- and ribosome-related, biosynthetic, DNA-repair, and genome-maintenance functions. By contrast, GPC014930 showed negative enrichment of photosynthesis, plastid organization, redox homeostasis, and translation-related processes. Global co-expression analysis identified a time-decreasing photosynthesis-associated module (ME5) and two time-increasing modules, ME12 and ME19, that were enriched in genes contributing to the late GPC010350 response. Integration of differential expressions, module membership, and functional annotation highlighted a heat shock transcription factor (Caz03g27980), HSP101 (Caz03g07770), and a dual-specificity phosphatase (Caz05g20970) as candidates for further investigation. Overall, the results suggest that genotype-dependent responses to prolonged heat exposure were associated not only with the magnitude of early transcriptional change, but also with differences in the temporal organization of stress-response, maintenance, and metabolic processes. The contrasting responses of the non-elite accessions GPC010350 and GPC014930 further highlight the value of phenotypically diverse germplasm for uncovering mechanisms relevant to future heat-tolerance breeding.

Background: Rvi6, introgressed from Malus floribunda 821, is the most widely deployed apple scab resistance gene, but Venturia inaequalis races overcoming it are widespread. Transcriptomic differences between Rvi6-effective and Rvi6-breaking interactions in one host genotype remain unresolved. Aims: To compare these interactions in cv. Ametyst and nominate genes for subsequent validation. Methods: Own-rooted Ametyst plants were mock-inoculated or inoculated with an Rvi6-avirulent isolate (Rin; incompatible) or an Rvi6-virulent isolate (Rola; compatible) and harvested at 4 days post-inoculation (21 mRNA libraries). Expression was quantified using GDDH13 reference-based and de novo Trinity strategies, followed by DESeq2, WGCNA and GSEA. Results: Rin vs Rola yielded 1,339 candidate genes (more than two-fold change, FDR < 0.01) in the reference-based analysis. Curation of Rin-induced defense candidates retained 151 genes, 92 of which concentrated in a single co-expression module. Thirty-one also passed the Rin-vs-Rola thresholded test and were prioritized for genetic validation. Conclusions: The incompatible interaction was associated with a coherent defense program and the compatible interaction with a distinct transcriptional state. With one isolate per class, isolate identity and Rvi6 virulence cannot be separated.

Background Strigolactones (SLs) regulate diverse aspects of plant development and have been implicated in promoting leaf senescence. However, senescence phenotypes associated with SL deficiency have not been consistently observed across species, suggesting that this function may be species- or context-dependent. Moreover, the contribution of endogenous SL biosynthesis to senescence in leafy vegetable crops remains unclear. Here, we investigated the role of the SL biosynthetic gene MORE AXILLARY GROWTH1 (MAX1) in dark-induced leaf senescence in lettuce (Lactuca sativa). Results We found that endogenous SL biosynthesis plays a major role in dark-induced senescence in lettuce. SL pathway genes were induced during dark storage, while exogenous GR24 accelerated senescence and lettuce MAX1 (LsMAX1) complemented the delayed-senescence phenotype of the Arabidopsis max1 mutant. Consistent with these findings, CRISPR/Cas9-generated Lsmax1 mutants exhibited a pronounced stay-green phenotype during prolonged darkness, accompanied by strongly reduced induction of key senescence-associated genes. Despite this delayed visible senescence, Lsmax1 retained a substantial transcriptional response to dark storage. Strikingly, loss of LsMAX1 did not simply weaken the wild-type senescence program, but redirected part of the response toward a distinct stress-associated transcriptional state that was largely absent from wild type. Loss of LsMAX1 did not affect vegetative rosette architecture, although increased branching emerged after bolting. Conclusions Our findings establish MAX1-dependent SL biosynthesis as an important regulator of leaf senescence in lettuce and reveal a role that extends beyond controlling the rate of senescence. Rather than simply delaying the wild-type program, loss of LsMAX1 alters the transcriptional trajectory of senescence, favoring an alternative stress-associated state during prolonged darkness. The strong stay-green phenotype without detectable changes to vegetative rosette architecture further highlights SL biosynthesis as a potential target for extending postharvest longevity in lettuce and other leafy crops.

Utricularia gibba L. is an aquatic carnivorous plant with a diverse set of capabilities. Reddening of traps frequently occurs in old in vitro cultures. While anthocyanins are often responsible for red coloration in plants, not every plant turns red. Stress factors like high light or excess sucrose have previously been shown to induce the formation of anthocyanins. Here, we hypothesized the red trap formation to be dependent on nutrient deprivation and tested nitrogen deprivation. The results suggest, that only in combination with light, nitrogen deficiency leads to the activation of the complete anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway and visible red coloration. However, in darkness, anthocyanin biosynthesis appears generally less active compared to light conditions and expression of most anthocyanin biosynthesis genes is not significantly upregulated under nitrogen deficiency.

BackgroundThe capitulum of Asteraceae is a highly specialized inflorescence whose formation requires the coordinated regulation of multiple developmental processes, including floral organ identity and floral meristem determinacy. The LEAFY (LFY)-UNUSUAL FLORAL ORGANS (UFO) regulatory module is known to play an important role in flower development; however, naturally occurring mutations affecting this pathway have not been genetically characterized in gerbera (Gerbera hybrida). ResultsIn this study, we characterized a novel gerbera mutant identified during a commercial crossing program and named it marimo based on its green, spherical capitulum. Morphological observations revealed the repeated formation of secondary and tertiary floret-like organs within primary floret-like organs. Scanning electron microscopy showed that the epidermal structure of the green organs in marimo was similar to that of wild-type involucral bracts. RNA sequencing identified numerous differentially expressed genes between marimo and the wild type, and network and Gene Ontology analyses highlighted gene groups associated with flower development, reproductive organ differentiation, and tissue structure formation. RNA-seq analysis showed increased expression of LFY and reduced expression of GGLO1, a PISTILLATA/GLOBOSA-like B-class MADS-box gene, in the marimo mutant. RT-qPCR analysis of a segregating population further confirmed reduced GGLO1 expression in marimo-type individuals. In addition, a single-nucleotide deletion was identified in the coding region of UFO. This deletion was predicted to cause a frameshift and a premature stop codon. In selfed progeny of No. 251, the UFO genotype was fully associated with capitulum phenotype, and only individuals homozygous for the mutant allele exhibited the marimo phenotype. ConclusionsThese results indicate that the naturally occurring frameshift mutation in UFO is the strongest candidate variant underlying the marimo phenotype. RNA-seq analysis showed increased LFY expression and markedly reduced GGLO1 expression in the marimo mutant. Reduced activity of the LFY-UFO regulatory module may therefore have altered the expression of GGLO1 and other floral organ development-related genes despite the continued expression of LFY. These changes may have affected both floral organ identity and floral meristem determinacy, resulting in the formation of green involucral bract-like organs and the repeated production of floret-like organs. The marimo mutant provides a useful genetic resource for investigating capitulum development in Asteraceae and may also serve as breeding material for introducing novel ornamental traits into gerbera.

Despite the recent cloning of RLK-encoding resistance genes and the identification of a common point of hyphal arrest at the stomatal level in incompatible interactions, the molecular mechanisms leading to the establishment of wheat resistance against Septoria tritici blotch (STB) remain poorly characterized. Here, we use long-read RNA-sequencing data to compare the early transcriptomic responses of two wheat cultivars carrying major, isolate-specific resistances to Zymoseptoria tritici via differential expression, differential transcript usage (DTU), functional- and pathway enrichment analyses. We show that both magnitude and composition of the responses depend strongly on the combination of host cultivar and pathogen isolate and that DTU appears to be uncommon at this infection stage. We do not detect a set of genes exclusively differentially expressed across incompatible interactions, but genes coding for proteins involved in several defense-related processes consistently show higher expression levels in incompatible than compatible interactions, including receptors and ROS homeostatic, antifungal hydrolytic, phenylpropanoid and diterpenoid biosynthetic enzymes. Our results suggest that whilst interaction-specific differences in magnitude and composition may also shape resistance, different major STB resistances may quantitatively enhance overlapping defense machinery, providing a basis for its functional investigation.

Branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) are essential amino acids involved in protein synthesis and energy metabolism. Because animals cannot synthesize BCAA de novo, plant-derived BCAAs are important to human nutrition. Although mungbean sprouts are widely consumed as functional plant-based food materials, changes in individual BCAA accumulation and their transcriptional regulation during mungbean germination remain poorly understood. In this study, amino acid contents and transcriptomic profiles were analyzed at three germination stages, 8H, 24H, and 72H. Total BCAA content increased during germination, whereas individual BCAAs exhibited distinct temporal accumulation patterns. Isoleucine and valine increased until 72H, while leucine increased during early germination and decreased after 24H. Transcriptome analysis revealed time-dependent expression changes in BCAA biosynthesis and degradation genes associated with the leucine decrease after 24H. These findings suggest that 24H represents an important transition point for BCAA accumulation and compositional change during mungbean germination. This study provides molecular evidence for the regulation of BCAA metabolism during mungbean germination and supports the potential use of germinated mungbean as a plant-based amino acid resource.

Context. Barley production requires advanced knowledge of its response to changing environmental conditions in order to keep it competitive and sustainable. Aim. Advance in the understanding of barley phenology and foliar development under South American field conditions. Methods. 8 spring barley genotypes with differential phenology were studied in four field experiments under different temperature (through years and sowing dates) and photoperiod (through sowing dates) conditions. Time to anthesis, emergence to onset of stem elongation, stem elongation to anthesis, photoperiod response (PR) in these three traits, number of final leaves at anthesis (FLN) and phyllochron were measured. Key Results. Time to anthesis and its subphases were shorter in late plantings but under similar photoperiod, temperature increased them. Cultivars have differential responses but with magnitude interactions and not crossover ones. Cultivar effects defined PR with no interaction with year (temperature). Temperature and photoperiod affected FLN, phyllochron and their relationship with time to anthesis. Under the shorter photoperiod, FLN and phyllochron were negatively correlated, FLN was higher in the warmer year and positively correlated with time to anthesis while phyllochron was not affected by temperature and had no correlation with time to anthesis. Under longer photoperiod, phyllochron was higher in the warmer year and time to anthesis was positively correlated with both FLN and phyllochron. Conclusions. Cultivar basal thermal requirements and PR were consistent under the different studied conditions. Changes in temperature and photoperiod affected the relationship between time to anthesis, FLN and phyllochron suggesting that, although the three traits are arithmetically related, environmental conditions affect their balance.

Understanding the genetic architecture of ecophysiological traits related to carbon gain and water loss is crucial to develop cultivars tolerant to abiotic stresses and that maintain productivity in the context of climate change. This can be achieved both through experiments in the greenhouse on potted plants under controlled conditions and in the field. However, the stability of genetic determinism of ecophysiological traits across environmental conditions has rarely been evaluated. We studied a grapevine diversity panel grown both in a greenhouse and in the field, to investigate the impact of growing conditions on leaf ecophysiological traits related to leaf morphology, fluorescence, gas exchange and water use efficiency. The correlation structure between traits was conserved within each environment even though, for most traits, cultivars ranking was not conserved between both environments. However, a set of cultivars, sharing the same functioning pattern in terms of gas exchange and fluorescence in both environments, was identified. Single- and multi-environment Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS), based on a dense genotyping matrix, were used to dissect the genetic architecture of leaf traits. The Quantitative Trait Loci (QTLs) identified through single-environment analyses differed substantially from those detected using multi-environment ones. Multi-environment approaches highlighted shared QTLs across environments for gas exchange and fluorescence traits. Candidate genes associated with carbon- and water-related functions were further identified in these genomic regions. Despite the weak correlation between greenhouse and field trait values, combining both environments enabled the identification of robust genetic regions associated with ecophysiological traits of interest.